Face angle and impact efficiency during golf driver swings in amateur university students

Abstract

Background and Study Aim. Smash Factor (SF) is a widely used indicator of impact efficiency in golf, reflecting the transfer of energy from the clubhead to the golf ball. Face Angle (FA) characterizes clubface orientation at impact and may be associated with impact efficiency. Although FA and SF are commonly used to characterize golf impact, their relationship in amateur golfers remains of practical interest. This study aimed to examine the association between FA and SF during repeated driver swings in amateur university student golfers. Materials and Methods. Fifteen amateur university student golfers (11 males and 4 females; mean age = 22.00 ± 1.31 years) performed 20 valid driver swings each using a Golfzon Vision Standard simulator, yielding 300 swing-level observations. FA and SF were recorded for every swing. A linear mixed-effects model with participant as a random intercept was used to examine the association between FA and SF while accounting for repeated swing observations within golfers. Results. FA was significantly associated with SF after accounting for within-player variability (B = 0.00164, SE = 0.00079, t = 2.077, p = 0.039; 95% CI: 0.00009–0.00320). The estimated participant-level random-intercept variance was 0.00152 (SE = 0.00068), indicating between-player variability in SF. Conclusions. FA was significantly associated with SF in repeated driver swings among amateur golfers. However, the magnitude of this association was small. FA may therefore provide complementary biomechanical information when interpreted alongside other swing characteristics rather than as an independent determinant of impact efficiency.